Magyar Néprajz (Hungarian Ethnology) II-VIII. General editor Attila Paládi-Kovács. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1988–2001. Illustrated. Attila Paládi-Kovács

In the period between 1988 and 2001, the Institute of Ethnology of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences compiled and published seven volumes of a new eight-volume ethnological synthesis. The final volume of the series (volume I) is in production. This reference work takes a new approach to the amassed data, knowledge, and research findings on the subject of the traditional culture of the Hungarian people. In this respect it is the intellectual successor to an earlier four-volume reference work, A magyarság néprajza (Ethnography of the Hungarians) published in Budapest in 1933–1937, the goal of both being to present, classify, and interpret Hungarian cultural heritage and ancient traditions in their entirety. This new work focuses on the sociological and cultural situation in the period between 1880 and 1920, but also gives an overview of the preceding and following periods, in order to illustrate continuity in the process of change. True to the historical situation during the period in question, the series encompasses all the regions of the historical Hungary and extends to those regions where Hungarian is still spoken (including those isolated pockets east of the Carpathian Mountains).

Three rather thick volumes of this reference work deal with material culture, introducing the reader to the world of objects and artifacts. The second volume (ed. Attila Paládi-Kovács, 2001) entitled Gazdálkodás (Farming) discusses the ancient methods, characteristic organizational structure, and tools of the hunting-gathering way of life (i.e. fishing, hunting, beekeeping, and food-gathering in forests and meadows). The series then continues by discussing the historical and regional development of peasant farming (agriculture and animal husbandry) and its various branches. Separate chapters deal respectively with the traditional methods, related objects, tools, and technological know-how utilized in field-farming, forestry, grape and fruit cultivation, gardening, cultivation with both plough and hoe, as well as stock-breeding (i.e. horse-, cattle-, sheep-, pig-, and dog-breeding, and poultry-farming).

A major independent chapter of the volume gives a schematic analysis of the methods and traditional instruments of communication, signaling, land and water travel, and the transportation of goods using both human and animal power. Detailed descriptions deal with the various types of wheeled vehicles and water vessels, as well as the developmental stages of rail transport and the techniques of harnessing and saddling horses.

The third volume (ed. Ottó Domonkos, 1991), entitled Kézművesség (Crafts) introduces the various peasant hand-trades, and the production of goods both by members of trade guilds and by independent craftspeople. The introduction summarizes the historical role of arts and crafts in providing for the needs of the peasantry, as well as their effect on the material culture of this group. An overview of the major stages in the development of the urban guilds from the Middle Ages to 1872 is given. The urban guilds helped to forge closer ties between Hungary and Central and Western Europe and, through the free movement of craftsmen, facilitated the spread of technological advances. A large portion of the volume is devoted to showing the materials, tools, techniques, and products of the various crafts and trades. Selling these products at markets and through peddlers facilitated the development of various forms of barter and trading. The final chapter, A vásárok néprajza (The ethnology of markets), with its analysis of traditional systems of exchanging goods, is a fitting end to the volume.

The fourth volume, (ed. Iván Balassa, 1997) entitled Életmód (Way of life), depicts the life of the Hungarian common folk, their consumption and characteristic material culture. The book starts out with a description and classification of the residential environment, the basic types of settlements and the variations thereof. In Hungary the villages and agricultural or market towns traditionally had a dominant role, but in various regions and at various times isolated remote farmsteads (in Hungarian tanya) were also of influence. A comprehensive description is given of traditional folk architecture, the building materials used, local building customs, and housing and living conditions. This description is complemented by information on the furniture and a historical and aesthetic description of interior design of the time. An information-packed chapter (by Eszter Kisbán) presents the traditional peasant kitchen. Characteristic dishes, cooking and baking techniques, the use of various spices and drinks, and the development of innovations over the centuries, as well as the development of Hungarian specialties (i.e. gulyás [a hearty soup], pörkölt [a thick stew], paprikás [a stew seasoned with paprika and sour cream]) are all described. However, the main focus of this chapter is the traditions surrounding meals, and the typical foods served on various occasions, including both common, everyday meals and festive feasts. This volume also classifies and gives a detailed account of traditional attire and the process of change evident in the clothing of the common people. Descriptions of various influential trends and a systematic categorization of traditional popular clothing of various regions concludes the chapter (by Mária Flórián). Especially noteworthy examples and analysis are used to illustrate the symbolic meaning of clothing and the various elements thereof, and to clarify their role in signifying the social status and stage of life of the wearer, as well as the special occasions on which they were worn. The fifth volume (ed. Lajos Vargyas, 1988), entitled Népköltészet (Folk poetry), covers the forms of narratives and verbal folklore. Apart from wideranging descriptions of epic poems, ballads, and lyric folk poetry, considerable energy is devoted to different forms of prose: folk tales, popular legends, troubadour accounts, true stories, and the so-called smaller forms of prose (anecdotes, proverbs, sayings and riddles), as well as to the poetry associated with various folk traditions, such as apocryphal prayers, spells and incantations, and children’s verses. Songs (as well as prose) related to the working classes are also discussed. The discussions of various categories and categorizations are based on aesthetic, historical, and sociological factors, and are supported by explanation and interpretation. The sixth volume (ed. Tekla Dömötör, Mihály Hoppál, 1989), entitled Népzene, néptánc, népi játék (Folk music, folk dance and folk games), presents the musical traditions and characteristic dance culture of the Hungarian peasantry. Lajos Vargyas discusses the styles of folk music, its regional classifications, historical stratification, and—through comparative analysis—its relationship to Eurasian folk music. The unique features of folk creativity and performance style are also examined. Nearly 200 examples of scores and other musical notation provide ample opportunity for analysis.

This volume also includes the first comprehensive compendium of Hungarian folk dance. Through careful analysis, the authors—György Martin, Ernő Pesovár, Ferenc Pesovár, and László Felföldi—establish the historical regional system of classifying dance types, draw parallels between Hungarian and the East Central European dance types, and identify the role of dance traditions in rural society. The chapter contains 100 pages of dance notation complemented by rich illustrations and photographs.

A chapter is also dedicated to the description and classification of children’s folk games. This chapter is filled with verbal texts, drawings, diagrams, illustrations, and musical scores related to children’s folklore. It is an invaluable reference source for preschool and primary school teachers.

The seventh volume (ed. Tekla Dömötör, Mihály Hoppál, 1990), entitled Népszokás, néphit, népi vallásosság (Folk customs, folk beliefs, folk religion), deals with precisely these topics, starting with the folk customs and traditional rites in conjunction with the major stages and turning points in life, such as birth, marriage, and burial. The next chapter expounds the customs and traditions tied to various special celebrations throughout the calendar year. A separate major section introduces the various systems of religion by denomination—namely Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic, and Protestant (i.e. Calvinist, Lutheran, Unitarian, but also smaller Protestant denominations such as Nazarene, Baptist, Adventist, and others). The religious folk life, celebrations, and the effects of religious traditions on the structure of individual communities, families, and other community units, as well as the effect of religion on everyday life and the mentality of the individual are analyzed. Unfortunately, descriptions of the Jewish and Eastern Orthodox religious life were not included in the volume for lack of competent authors.

The third section of the volume gives a systematic description and historical and comparative analysis of folk beliefs, elements of mythology and cosmogony, folk medicine and healing, and concepts of nature. The chapters by Éva Pócs and Mihály Hoppál, who analyze the shamanistic elements in folk culture, as well as the ancient and newer European religious segments, by developing and building on the work of well-known predecessors in the field (Arnold Ipolyi, Géza Róheim, Vilmos Diószegi), are especially valuable. This is truly an extensive and comprehensive compilation of the spiritual culture (geistige Kultur) of the Hungarian people.

The eighth volume (ed. Attila Paládi-Kovács, 2000), entitled Társadalom (Society), gives a comprehensive overview of the structure, functioning, and institutions of traditional society, as well as the various types of local communities and the relationship between the individual and society. The initial chapters, which expound on the concepts of socioethnology and the history of Hungarian research in the field, are followed by a description of the constitutional status and feudal way of life of the ancient peasantry. Separate chapters deal with various popular social constructs and classes (lesser nobility, shepherds, petit bourgeoisie, craftsman, merchants, miners or industrial workers, and the so-called temporary peasant workers) that were both legally, culturally, and psychologically far removed from the peasantry. Special attention is paid to relationship-systems existing in peasant society, in the family unit and extended family, as well as to characteristic gender roles and age-group related social functions, the distribution of wealth, the role of neighbors, and the often close ties with so called ‘non-blood’ relatives. The effects of common everyday cooperation and the operation of autonomous communities of various sizes in shaping the economies of rural villages are also discussed. Issues of morality, manners, conformity to the rule of law and expected norms of conduct and lifestyle, and the roles of local public institutions and Churches in structuring society are all explained in great detail. The lives and relationshipnetworks of specific individuals, as well as the relationship- systems of local communities over time in various areas are also covered.

The final chapter of the volume takes a brief look at the changes in Hungary between 1945 and 2000. As this is the first such work detailing the peasantry of rural communities in Hungary, it is understandable that it has awakened interest from a variety of academic disciplines, such as sociology and history. The final volume of the series (volume I) is currently in the making. This last volume, after a brief history of the discipline, will deal with the historical and regional distribution of the Hungarian people, as well as the history of ethno-demography, with emphasis on material culture and historical periods of folklore.